What started as the pursuit of superiority in nuclear armament and long-range weaponry between the United States and the Soviet Union set the foundations of Space exploration. In this series, we highlight milestones of the Space Race to explore the beginnings of Space Exploration, looking at the role played by the two parties involved and how they each reacted to their counterpart’s successes and woes
Spoils of World War 2
At the end of the Second World War in 1945, the United States launched Operation Paperclip, which aimed at bringing over 1,600 German scientists, engineers, and technicians from the former Nazi Germany to the USA for employment. The Allies had discovered a cache of talents and advanced research that made the Germans formidable during the war — the Nazi Germans had developed and launched the V-2 rocket, which was the first long-range guided ballistic missile; and the first artificial object in space (it crossed the Kármán line).
The Soviets (USSR) would later launch Operation Osoaviakhim in 1946, which saw the transportation of more than 6000 people (including 2500 Nazi German Specialists) and related equipment to the Soviet Union as war reparations. These actions would have a significant bearing on the ensuing Cold War.
The Cold War and its Space Race
As mistrust deepened and suspicions grew between former allies, a new war began. The war was one of ideology between a Capitalist and Democratic sect and a Socialist and Communist sect. While there were no direct military confrontations between the superpowers in this war, this period would have a lasting impact on history. It was first called the Cold War in a speech by Bernard Baruch in 1947. However, the term Cold War was first used by George Orwell in his 1945 essay describing the fear of living under the threat of growing nuclear powers. As the two sides of the war continued to show restraint in face-off due to a fear of nuclear fallout, the showdown took on different shapes and forms, from propaganda wars to proxy wars to espionage and at some point, a space race.
The Space Race started on July 30, 1955, when the US announced its intent to launch artificial satellites for the International Geophysical Year. The Soviets responded four days later, declaring they would launch their satellite “in the near future”. On October 4, 1957 (19:28:34 UTC), the USSR had the first successful launch of a satellite: the Sputnik 1 (COSPAR ID: 1957-002A).
Fellow-Traveller-One
In Russia, the prefix s- means ‘fellow’ and ’putnik’ means ‘traveller’; combined, it means ‘fellow-traveller’, and is the origin of the satellite’s name Sputnik One. However, the Russians did not intend Sputnik as a proper name. That connotation was bestowed on it by the Western media when The New York Times released an article titled “Soviet ‘Sputnik’ Means A Traveler’s Traveler” on October 6, 1957.
Mikhail S. Khomyakov led the design and construction of the satellite at OKB-1, and it was as simple (in comparison with consequent satellites) as its naming. The main body was made of two hemispheres sealed hermetically with O-rings and 32 bolts. Each hemisphere was 2 mm thick with a diameter of 585 mm and covered with a highly polished one mm-thick heat shield made of an aluminium-magnesium-titanium alloy. The satellite had a launch mass of 83.6 kg. Attached to the satellite were two pairs of antennae, each consisting of two whip-like parts, 2.4 and 2.9 metres in length.
The satellite was powered by three silver-zinc batteries in the shape of an octagon, weighing 51 kg together. Two of the batteries supplied the one-watt, 3.5 kg radio transmitter, which sat in the hole of the battery nut. The transmitting unit operated on two frequencies (20.005 and 40.002 MHz); signals of the first frequency were sent out at pulses of 0.3 s, while the second pulsed at the same duration when the first frequency paused. The transmission could be received on Earth for 22 days before the batteries depleted. Analysis of the radio signals provided information about the electron density in the ionosphere.
The duration of the radio beeps encoded temperature and pressure information. The third battery powered a temperature regulation system that contained a fan, a dual thermal switch, and a control thermal switch. If the temperature inside the satellite fell below 0 ⁰C. or exceeded 50 ⁰C, the control thermal switch was activated, which changed the duration of the radio signal pulses. Sputnik 1 was also filled with dry nitrogen at 1.3 kPa to measure and had a barometric switch that activated when the pressure within dropped due to failure. A pressure drop would also have changed the duration of the radio signal pulse. The density of the upper atmosphere was also deduced from its drag on the orbit.
Launched at the Baikonur Cosmodrome Site 1/5, the Sputnik 1 was carried into space by Sputnik 8K71PS, a modified R-7 rocket initially developed as an intercontinental ballistic missile. While attached to the rocket, a cone-shaped payload fairing protected the satellite. The satellite was ejected when the spent R-7 second stage and the fairing separated.
Sputnik 1 spent three months in the low Earth orbit at a 65.10⁰ orbital inclination, completing 1440 orbits (the orbit period was 96.20 minutes at a speed of 8 km/s) before it fell back into the atmosphere due to aerodynamic drag on January 4, 1958. The orbital inclination ensured that the flight path covered the entire occupied Earth.
‘Now our first Sputnik is not lonely in its space travels.’
This quote was the boast made by Soviet Premier Khrushchev 6 days after the launch of Sputnik 2 on 3 November 1957 (02:30 UTC); it was the second spacecraft launched to orbit Earth, and it was the first to carry a living organism to space, a Soviet space dog named Laika.
Also launched with Sputnik 8K71PS, the Sputnik 2 was 4 metres high with a cone-shaped capsule that had a base diameter of 2 metres. The cone-shaped capsule, weighing 508.3 kg, was not designed to separate from the rocket core that took it into orbit. Thus, the total mass in orbit was about 7.79 tonnes. The capsule contained radio transmitters, a telemetry system. a programming unit, a regeneration and temperature system for a separate cabin, and other scientific instruments. A cabin sealed separately housed the only crew of the spacecraft, Laika.
Laika, which means “Barker”, was a part-samoyed terrier that weighed about 6 kg. She was one of ten candidates selected from a pre-existing suborbital program. Laika was chosen because of her even temperament, and she had telemetry wires attached to her through surgery to monitor her vitals during the flight. Her backup, Albina, also underwent this process. The cabin she stayed in was pressurized and padded, with enough space left to lay or stand up while she was in a harness and chained to the cabin. Other fittings include a regeneration system to provide oxygen; an observation camera that transmitted 100-line video frames at the rate of 10 frames per second; food and water dispensed in gelatinized form; a waste bag; and electrodes to collect her vital signals. Laika would die shortly after reaching orbit, with the cause of death undisclosed until 2002 by a report from the Institute of Biological Problems of Spaceflight. Initial speculations were that she had been euthanized or poisoned, but the report revealed that she had died of severe overheating when the thermal control system on Sputnik 2 malfunctioned.
Beyond being the first biological payload in orbit, the Sputnik 2 was the first platform that could make scientific observations in orbit. Most of the Sun’s emitted rays outside the visible spectrum are absorbed in the atmosphere, particularly the X-ray and ultraviolet (UV) output. The limitations and the unpredictability and fluctuating nature of solar output meant that satellites were required for long-term study of the solar spectrum. In line with this, Sputnik 2 carried two spectrophotometers, one measuring the solar ultraviolet spectrum and the other measuring the X-rays. Recorded data was transmitted using the Tral_D telemetry system, which sent the data to Earth for 15 minutes of each orbit. The engineering payload also carried a cosmic ray detector that transmitted till its battery ran out. Sputnik 2 burned up on re-entering the atmosphere on 14 April 1958.
“Kaputnik”
At this stage, you must wonder where the US features in the Space Race aside from instigating it. After the initial statement by President Eisenhower, they did not seem to make progress as much as their Soviet counterparts. The launch of Sputniks 1 and 2 shook the West; there was awe, but the fear was palpable. Aside from the fact that the satellites were carried into orbit by technology that could now carry nuclear warheads to American shores, the US also feared that the satellites could launch said Nuclear attacks.
In response, the US made a first pass at putting a satellite into orbit around the Earth: The Vanguard TV-3 (Vanguard Test Vehicle-Three) was a small satellite designed to test the launch capabilities of the three-stage Vanguard and to study the effects of the environment on a satellite and its component systems while it orbits the Earth.
On 6 December 1957 (16:44:35 GMT), there was liftoff at the Atlantic Missile Range, Cape Canaveral, Florida… for about 2 seconds. When the spacecraft reached a height of 1.2m, the rocket lost power and plummeted back to its launchpad; the fuel tanks ruptured with an explosion. The impact pushed the Vanguard 1A satellite off its vehicle and while it landed only a short distance away, it was damaged and beyond use. While the exact cause of the accident could not be determined with certainty, it was concluded that there was a problem with the fuel system.
This failure to launch was a further blow to the prestige of the US. Not only were they behind in the race, but it also seemed they could not get started. Newspaper headlines made plays with the name Sputnik to describe the failure: “Kaputnik”, “Oopsnik”, “Dudnick” and “Stayputnik”.
Just off the Starting blocks
While it looked like the Soviets had established their dominance in space exploration, this was only the beginning. The events that would follow next are a testament to human perseverance and ingenuity. A rivalry that would redefine the boundaries of space exploration and spark scientific breakthroughs and inventions bloomed for the world to witness.
About Today’s Author
Yesterday, I helped a lady cross a road… in Lagos. For much-needed context, I’m relatively a ‘JJC’ here. I also saw The Grand Budapest Hotel this morning. The brightest light in my room is my laptop’s screen and…
I am Samuel Ojo, a 400L Mechanical engineering student, and the chief editor of technical articles for the Space Club Editorial Team. I hope you find this piece informative and that we have your attention and support from hereon.
Prost!
